041a - The Gallic Wars

Hello, and welcome to the History of Rome, episode 41A, the Gallic Wars. At the end of last week, Caesar had succeeded in immunizing himself from prosecution by securing a pro-consul ship in Cisalpine Gaul for a period of five years. Over the course of his career, he had ignored tradition, law, morality, and good taste, and his enemies in the Senate were salivating at the opportunity to see him in court. Caesar was guilty as sin of the charges that would be brought against him as soon as he left public office, so for the sake of his career, and possibly his life, it was imperative that he never return to Rome as a private citizen. As we will see, it was this legal axe hanging over his head as much as anything else that led him to cross the Rubicon in that fateful year of 49 BC. But that was still a decade away. Now, in the year 58 BC, Caesar took over the governorship of Gaul, setting the stage for one of the most famous military campaigns in history. And not to take anything away from the skill and daring Caesar displayed while in Gaul, but the real reason the Gallic Wars are so famous is because Caesar wanted them to be famous. The thing that really shines through, more than his tactical ability or engineering accomplishments or strategic vision, was his brilliant flair for propaganda. Caesar was the unparalleled master of self-promotion. That his commentaries on the war in Gaul is still required reading for Latin language courses today speaks for itself.

At the time Caesar took control of Cis and Transalpine Gaul, the land north of the Mediterranean Basin was, from the Roman perspective, an uncivilized land populated by barbaric tribes. But civilized is a relative term, and though to Roman eyes the Gauls were, quote, uncivilized, this does not mean that they were mindless brutes. True, there was no centralized government, and the basic political unit was still the tribe. But there were towns, craftsmen, religion, money, ornamentation, literacy, and political intrigue. I think the proper analogy here is the European arrival in the New World. The native Indians were dismissed as primitive by the civilized Europeans, but I think anyone who takes even a cursory glance at the workings of, say, the Iroquois Confederacy, would be hard-pressed to argue that there was not a sophisticated civilization at work prior to the arrival of Western settlers. The same is true of the Gauls. To the average clean-shaven Roman, the long-haired Gaul must have seemed like something out of a primordial nightmare, but I think that there was a lot less separating them than either side would have cared to admit.

Independent Gaul encompassed what is today France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and parts of Switzerland. The Romans controlled the southernmost territory in the Mediterranean basin, but since their days of initial expansion during the Punic Wars, they had shown little interest in moving north and seemed content to simply control the land route to the rich province of Hispania. In the east, Gaul was understood to end at the Rhine River, across which lay Germania. The relationship between the Gauls, the Germans, and who's doing what on whose side of the Rhine will be of great importance not only to the unfolding Gallic Wars, but for the rest of Roman history, as the Rhine River will eventually stand as the official border of the Roman Empire.

In 58 BC, the Helvetii, a Celtic tribe who lived around Lake Geneva, grew tired of dealing with the encroaching German tribes. They decided to pack up their entire civilization and move out of the mountains, intent on resettling in lowland Gaul. According to Master of Propaganda Caesar, the Helvetii numbered somewhere north of 350,000, with roughly 100,000 of those being able-bodied men. Their total number was probably more like 100,000 to 150,000, with 30,000 to 50,000 being able-bodied men, not quite the vast horde Caesar makes them out to be, but still large enough to be a terrible menace to the tribes they would transplant when they arrived to build their new home. They moved down through a valley until they arrived at the border of Transalpine Gaul, which they hoped to pass through so as to avoid moving through Free Gaul, which was full of tribes who had no interest in the Helvetii migrating into their lands. At this point, they sent envoys to meet Caesar and request safe passage through Roman territory. Caesar agreed to consider the request and asked for the envoys to return at a later specified date to receive an answer. But Caesar had no intention of letting the Helvetii pass and was simply stalling for time while he gathered his legions and built a huge fortified wall from one end of the narrow valley to the other. When the Helvetian envoys returned, the giant wall they ran into spoke for itself. Caesar's answer was no.

There is no doubt that from the very beginning of his governorship, Caesar was looking for any opportunity to exploit perceived belligerence as an excuse to invade Greater Gaul. The Helvetian migration was simply the first opportunity that presented itself and Caesar wasn't going to pass up an excuse to pick a fight. For the record, there was probably a real concern that the Helvetii's migration would do serious damage to the balance of power in the region and as governor of the neighboring province, Caesar had an interest in keeping the region stable. But you get the feeling that the Helvetii could have been looking for a place to plant a nice flower garden to brighten everyone's day and Caesar still would have poked them in the eye with a stick. The Helvetii, though, were not looking for a place to plant a nice flower garden. They were warriors through and through and reacted the way warriors react when someone pokes them in the eye with a stick. They attacked. But the Roman engineers had done their job with the fortifications and the legionaries did their job with the fighting and the Helvetii were easily repulsed. So the migrating Celts had no choice but to head north and pass through hostile Gallic territory. Caesar quickly returned to the Italian side of the Alps, picked up three legions he had in reserve and raised two more from the local population. When the Helvetii spilled into Gaul, Caesar would be ready in case the call for aid arrived. Right on cue, an allied tribe ransacked by the incoming Helvetii sent a mission to beg the Romans for aid. They found Caesar more than willing to help his poor beleaguered allies drive off the nasty Helvetii. Were the allied tribes asking for his legions to march into their territory? Yes, yes, the missions replied. Intervention formally requested. Caesar had his legal cover. The Roman invasion of Gaul had begun.

Caesar caught up with the Helvetii as they crossed what is today the Seine River near the border between Switzerland and France. He waited while three quarters of the Celts were across the river and then, with only 25% left on the east bank, charged in and attacked, annihilating the far smaller group while their comrades watched on from the far bank. The Helvetians were incensed at this cowardly move. Their sense of honor demanded open conflict between two armies with lots of opportunities for individual bravery. They did not understand an enemy that would intentionally launch a surprise attack against a much weaker force. They drew the conclusion that the Romans were afraid of facing the full Helvetian army. They should have drawn the conclusion that Caesar didn't care a whit about Celtic honor. He was just going to systematically destroy them.

With the bulk of the Helvetians, though, now loose in greater Gaul, Caesar knew he would not be able to simply pick around the edges for long. He followed the Helvetii into modern France, but in doing so, made a strategic decision that would come back to haunt him. In order to stay mobile during the invasion, Caesar decided to forego establishing a secure supply line back to Roman territory. Instead, he intended to live off the land, and off the supplies he demanded from his Gallic allies. This was a risky decision that very nearly ended the invasion before it really began. See, not all the Gallic tribes, not even the tribes technically allied with Rome, were super excited about a Roman army rampaging around their territory. Not only was it dangerous in the immediate sense that the legions would eat them out of house and home, but it was dangerous in the longer term sense that Rome might get comfortable with the idea that free Gaul lived to serve them. So Caesar's request for supplies got lost in the mail, or were mistranslated, or couldn't be met because, um, we've had a bad harvest. We'll get you what we can on Thursday. Oh, no, no, we mean next Thursday. It didn't take long for Caesar to realize he was being jerked around, and that he was now deep in enemy territory without anything to eat. So he abandoned his pursuit of the Helvetii and made for Biberacti, a fortified allied town in modern Burgundy. The Helvetii got wind of the Roman plight and turned around, the hunted now becoming the hunter. The Romans barely won the race to Biberacti, with the Helvetii cavalry harassing their rear as they approached the town. There turned out to be no time to actually even enter the fort, as the Helvetii smelt blood in the water and pressed an immediate attack. Both sides secured their baggage trains, and on the 20th of June, launched themselves at each other.

A full day's fighting, with the outcome forever in doubt, finally gave way to night, as the Romans slowly, methodically, gained the upper hand. The Helvetii, and the Gauls, Celts, and Germans generally, knew of no other way to fight than charge en masse and engage in one-on-one fighting. How else could a warrior distinguish himself and earn the kind of glory so prized by his tribesmen? The Romans, on the other hand, fought in their maniple units, never breaking ranks, and working with ruthless mechanical efficiency. It was infuriating to the tribes, and a major source of their contempt that they felt towards the Romans. But at the end of a long day, when the Helvetii were exhausted, the legions kept pressing forward. Finally, they broke through and captured the Celtic baggage train. And when you have uprooted your entire civilization, and packed it all into a baggage train, the capture of said train means that you have lost everything. The remains of the Helvetii, the women and children, the injured fighters, fled the field. Caesar's legions were so exhausted, and had so many dead to bury, that they were unable to take up pursuit for three days. But Caesar sent riders out to all the local tribes, threatening dire consequences for anyone who helped the Helvetii fugitives. When they were recovered, the legions set off after the survivors, quickly catching up with what was left of the great Celtic tribe. Those who had survived fell on their knees and begged for clemency. Caesar spared their lives, ordering them to return to Lake Geneva, where they were to remain, serving as a buffer between Roman territory and the forever encroaching Germanic tribes. With no recourse, the Helvetii agreed. Caesar's first major test as a general was a complete success.

But he did not have long to bask in the glow of victory, because, speaking of encroaching German tribes, a German tribe was pouring across the Rhine, threatening to overrun the entire country. While Caesar was beating back the Helvetii, political struggles between native Gallic tribes had led one side to call on their cousins across the Rhine to help them out. They knocked on the door of Ariovistus, a great German leader who was more than happy to have an excuse to bring his 100,000-odd troops into Gaul. The tribe that had called him assumed Ariovistus would help them defeat their enemies and then leave. Ariovistus thought Gaul a nice place to rule, and he turned ruthlessly on nominal Gallic ally and nominal Gallic foe alike. This forced both sides of the internal Gallic struggle to turn to the Romans for aid. And this was a somewhat tricky situation for Caesar, as Ariovistus had already made diplomatic contact with Rome and, with Caesar's support no less, been declared a friend of the Romans. But that did not give the German king carte blanche, and Caesar was already considering Gaul his own personal backyard. He marched northeast towards the Rhine, where the Germans were camped. At this point, Caesar was just coming off an extremely hard-fought battle with the Helvetii and was in no mood to take on a huge and fresh German army. So his intention was to convince Ariovistus to withdraw back across the Rhine, or at the very least prevent any more Germans from coming into Gaul. Caesar sent envoys ahead asking for a meeting, but the German king would have none of it. So Caesar sent a note containing the provisions by which the Germans would be allowed to stay in Gaul. No more Germans could cross the river, any Gallic hostages the Germans held must be returned, and they must agree to not make war on any native Gallic tribe. Ariovistus scoffed at these terms and replied incredulously that it was rich for a Roman general to be making demands so far from his home. If Caesar wanted to force the issue, he was more than welcome to try.

While this back and forth was taking place, ever more Germans were invading across the Rhine, and calls for help were coming down from the local Gauls. Caesar knew he had to put a stop to the invasion. His legions could certainly stand to be outnumbered in battle, but there was a practical limit to what they could match. So Caesar moved north, through the dense forest west of the Rhine, to close the spigot. Marching for days through trees so tightly packed the sun disappeared toward an enemy that was amongst the most feared in the ancient world, the legionnaire's nerves began to waver. With each passing day, stories passed through the ranks about the Germans took on a life of their own, until the average foot soldier was convinced that Caesar was marching them to face fifteen-foot tall cannibals who breathed fire and used black magic to curse their enemies. Caesar nipped this brewing mutiny in the bud by convening a meeting of his centurions, the veteran soldiers who led the men day to day, in camp and in battle. He shamed them all publicly for doing nothing to stop the growing discord and all but called them cowards for being frightened of a dark forest and some no-account brutes from across the river. The shaming worked and the dissension in the ranks was quickly silenced. His army fully committed, Caesar closed the final miles between his legions and Ariovistus's massive German army. Upon arrival, Caesar built a fortified camp and was surprised to discover that suddenly the Germans were ready to talk.

Ariovistus called for a meeting at a neutral site with numerous preconditions, not the least of which being that the two leaders could only be accompanied by cavalry, absolutely no infantry guards. In practice, this meant that Caesar would have with him none of his fellow countrymen, as his cavalry was exclusively made up of Gallic auxiliaries. But Caesar sidestepped this ploy by ordering members of his favorite legion, the Tenth, to mount horses and accompany him. It was from this episode that the Tenth, one of the most famous legions in Roman military history, earned the nickname that they would carry with them for the rest of their existence, the Tenth Mounted Legion. The meeting with Ariovistus was as strange as it was unproductive. The German leader was agitated and belligerent, but refused to commit himself to battle, though he implied that if it did come to battle, that word had come from the Roman Senate that the German had their blessing to wipe Caesar and his legions off the face of the earth. Meanwhile, while the two leaders talked, the German cavalry hurled javelins and stones at the Roman guard. It was obvious that the Romans were being baited, but Caesar refused to bite. As he returned to camp, the one thing he could not figure out was why the Germans did not just attack. They outnumbered the Romans, were in better fighting shape, had better access to supplies, and a superior tactical position. It didn't make a lick of sense.

Soon though, spies in the German camp brought an explanation. The tribal priestesses, who determined through divination whether the gods favored battle or not, had been performing their rites day after day, but kept coming back with a negative answer. Ariovistus himself wanted nothing more than to attack, but he risked the wrath of his gods if he did. Caesar immediately acted on this crucial piece of intelligence and made ready for an immediate assault on the German camp. Once their blood was up, the Germans were sure to fight hard, but maybe their religious hesitation would cause them to flinch or withdraw at the outset. For the outnumbered legions, it was their best hope for total victory. The next day, Caesar launched his full-scale attack. Whether religious concerns played a role in the fighting is unknown, but the Germans certainly didn't act as if their gods didn't want them fighting. However, as with the Helvetii, a full day's hard battle, taking place first on open ground and then on the trampled bodies of the dead, finally began to break the Romans' way. One of the wings, led by Marcus Crassus' son Publius, began to drive the Romans back, finally snapping the enemy line. The Germans broke headline for the Rhine, abandoning imperial dreams in Gaul and now hoping to simply make it home alive. The fifteen miles back to the river was a running slaughter, with Caesar ordering that no prisoners be taken. Ariovistus, displaying great courage and honor, abandoned his wife and daughter to the Romans and escaped on a small raft back to Germania. He never crossed the Rhine again.

In one summer, Caesar had destroyed two massive invading forces and was fast making a name for himself as one of the greatest generals in Roman history. Here he was, campaigning where no Roman legion had gone before, defeating the very barbarians who had haunted Roman nightmares from the days of the Great Sack of Rome 350 years earlier. Caesar of course took every opportunity to send home breathless reports from the front line about his extraordinary campaign, his own genius, and the courage of his men, and in the public imagination Julius Caesar was fast growing into a larger-than-life figure, who would soon eclipse his jealous triumvirate colleagues Pompey and Crassus.

For about a nanosecond, native Gauls held Caesar in the same esteem his fellow Romans did. He had prevented first the marauding Helvetii and then the fearsome Germans from ransacking their homeland. Think if Caesar had failed, why, they could have been made mere vassals of some invading foreign power. They celebrated Caesar and then wished him a safe trip back to Roman territory. Thanks for all your help, maybe we'll call you sometime. But Caesar wasn't going back to Rome, and his army wasn't going anywhere. He ordered the legions to build winter quarters and then settled in to await the spring. The Gauls quickly realized that Caesar and the Romans were here to stay.

Next week, Caesar will use a savvy strategy of divide and conquer to slowly assert Roman dominance over all of Gaul. Along the way, he would become the first Roman general to cross the Rhine River and campaign in Germania, as well as the first Roman to lead an expedition to the mythical island of Britannia. Though the Gauls would eventually organize a resistance and very nearly expel the Romans from their country, Caesar would not be denied his prize, and in a few short years, what had forever been a wild land of fearsome barbarians would become just another province in the mighty Roman Empire.